Sheet and gully soil erosion based on exposed tree roots and USLE in central Mexico
Erosión laminar y en cárcavas con base en raíces expuestas de árboles y la USLE en el centro de México
Mireya Vázquez-Ríos1,*, Osvaldo Franco-Ramos2, Lorenzo Vázquez-Selem2, Juan Antonio Ballesteros-Cánovas3
1 Posgrado en Geografía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, 04510, México.
2 Instituto de Geografía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, 04510, México.
3 National Museum of Natural Sciences, Spanish Research Council, MNCN-CSIC, C/ Serrano 115bis, 14 28006 Madrid, Spain.
* Corresponding author: (M. Vázquez-Ríos) This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
How to cite this article:
Vázquez-Ríos, M., Franco-Ramos, O., Vázquez-Selem, L., Ballesteros-Cánovas, J.A., 2025, Sheet and gully soil erosion based on exposed tree roots and USLE in central Mexico: Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 77(3), A180925. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/BSGM2025v77n3a180925
Manuscript received: December 16, 2024. Corrected manuscript received: June 24, 2025. Manuscript accepted: July 10, 2025.
ABSTRACT
In recent decades, human activities have intensified soil erosion, making it a global environmental problem. Yet, its quantification remains challenging. Here, we analyze and compare sheet and gully erosion rates using dendrogeomorphological methods (exposed roots) and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) in a severely eroded area of central Mexico. Sheet erosion rates were calculated from disturbances in the exposed root tree rings of Juniperus deppeana, with rates ranging from 5.1 to 14.4 mm/year. In addition, the origin and evolution of a gully were reconstructed, with the first erosional pulse dated to 2006, followed by other major pulses in 2015, 2016 and 2018. Sheet erosion rates obtained with the USLE were between 4.5 and 11.7 mm/year for “sparse vegetation cover” and between 2.0 and 5.1 mm/year for “reforestation of eroded areas”. These values were similar to those calculated with the dendrogeomorphological method; therefore, they can be used in a complementary way. The results obtained with the dendrogeomorphological method are precise and cover a longer time span (tens of years), but they require validation with other methods. The USLE is a model of easy application, but it requires calculating and adapting the factors to the study site. This research represents a significant contribution to the understanding of erosional dynamics in tropical highlands, providing valuable knowledge for the development of effective environmental management and conservation strategies.
Keywords: erosion rate, dendrogeomorphology, exposed roots, empirical erosion model.
RESUMEN
En las últimas décadas, las actividades humanas han intensificado la erosión del suelo, convirtiéndola en un problema medioambiental a escala global. Sin embargo, su cuantificación sigue siendo un desafío. En este estudio, analizamos y comparamos las tasas de erosión laminar y en cárcavas utilizando métodos dendrogeomorfológicos (raíces expuestas) y la Ecuación Universal de Pérdida de Suelo (USLE) en un área severamente erosionada del centro de México. Las tasas de erosión laminar se calcularon a partir de alteraciones en los anillos de raíces expuestas de Juniperus deppeana, obteniendo tasas que oscilaron entre 5.1 y 14.4 mm/año. Además, se reconstruyó el origen y evolución de una cárcava, con el primer pulso erosivo fechado en 2006, seguido de otros pulsos importantes en 2015, 2016 y 2018. Las tasas de erosión laminar obtenidas con la USLE oscilaron entre 4.5 y 11.7 mm/año para “cobertura de vegetación dispersa” y entre 2.0 y 5.1 mm/año para “reforestación de áreas erosionadas”. Estos valores fueron similares a los calculados con el método dendrogeomorfológico, por lo que pueden utilizarse de forma complementaria. Los resultados obtenidos con las raíces expuestas son precisos y cubren un lapso de tiempo mayor (decenas de años), pero es necesario validarlos con otros métodos, mientras que el USLE es un modelo de fácil aplicación, aunque requiere calcular y adaptar los factores que la componen al sitio de estudio. Esta investigación representa un aporte significativo al entendimiento de la dinámica erosiva en zonas altas tropicales, aportando conocimiento valioso para el desarrollo de estrategias efectivas de manejo y conservación ambiental.
Palabras clave: tasas de erosión, dendrogeomorfología, raíces expuestas, modelo empírico de erosión.
1. Introduction
Soil provides essential services that support ecosystems and the development of economic activities such as agriculture, livestock and forestry. Healthy soils are a vital natural resource for society (Aguirre-Salado et al., 2017), enabling plant growth, regulating water systems, cycling nutrients, and storing carbon. Despite its high value for human well-being, soil degradation, among which water erosion stands out, has become a serious worldwide issue. Soil can naturally regenerate, but at a much slower rate than human-induced soil degradation, which jeopardizes soil productivity for future generations (Renard et al., 1997; Napoli et al., 2016) and gives way to other social and environmental problems (Lal, 2005; López-García et al., 2020).
Among the most frequent types of denudation processes is sheet erosion, which consists of the removal of soil in thin layers by the action of surface runoff (Tayupanta, 1993). When the flow of water is concentrated in the irregularities of the terrain, it leads to the formation of rills and later of gullies (Suárez de Castro, 1980). Gully systems can evolve into badlands (Gallart et al., 2002; Howard, 2009). These geomorphological landscapes develop under diverse climatic, lithological and soil conditions (Bryan and Yair, 1982; Howard, 1994) and are considered as hotspots in sediment production at large regional scales (Moreno-de las Heras and Gallart, 2018).
The amount of research concerning the quantification of soil erosion has increased in the last decades (FAO, 2019). Most research has focused on quantifying soil erosion rates through direct observation and experiments (Pizarro-Tapia and Cuitiño-Martínez, 2002; Romero-Díaz et al., 2011) using diverse dating techniques (Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2013; Muñoz-Salinas et al., 2023). Among them is dendrogeomorphology based on exposed roots, which has been successfully used in several areas of Europe (Bodoque et al., 2005; Corona et al., 2011; Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2015; Bodoque et al., 2017) and in Latin America, such as Argentina (Chartier et al., 2009) and Mexico (Franco-Ramos et al., 2022, 2023). The analysis of disturbances in root growth rings at the macroscopic (eccentric growth, reaction wood, increased latewood band) and microscopic (increased cell lumen area) levels has allowed determining the year of root exposure. With that information and the thickness of soil lost, sheet erosion rates have been estimated in millimeters per year (Gärtner 2007; Corona et al., 2011; Bodoque et al., 2019). The study of gully erosion based on exposed roots has received less attention than sheet erosion. However, Vandekerckhove et al. (2001) detailed the reconstruction of gullies using exposed roots at various positions within the gully. Subsequently, research was conducted to determine the origin of gullies, reconstruct their three-dimensional evolution, and to estimate rates of channel widening, gully incision and headcut retreat (Malik, 2008; Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2017; Šilhán, 2018; Franco-Ramos et al., 2022, 2023).
Since the middle of the last century, one of the most widely used methods to estimate soil erosion is the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). This approach estimates annual soil loss from coefficients that are a numerical representation of factors involved in erosion such as rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, crop system, and management practices. It was designed under the environmental conditions and agricultural practices of the United States (Stone and Hilborn, 2012). However, over the years it has been adapted to other parts of the world, including Central and South America (Kim et al., 2005; Olivares et al., 2015), Africa (Schürz et al., 2020), Asia (Aflizar et al., 2013) and Europe (Panagos et al., 2015). In Mexico, the USLE has been used to quantify soil erosion at different spatial scales: national (Montes-León et al., 2011), watershed (Castro-Mendoza, 2013; Flores-López et al., 2003; Nájera-González et al., 2016) and hillside or plot (Fernández de Castro et al., 2018; Pando-Moreno et al., 2003).
Soil erosion in Mexico represents a major environmental problem, affecting more than 40% of the territory with some degree of erosion (SEMARNAT, 2019). The region of Huasca de Ocampo, Hidalgo, is one of the areas most impacted by this geomorphic process, which has resulted in the formation of badlands. These landforms are considered natural laboratories since they allow the analysis of various surface processes at reduced temporal and spatial scales (Bryan and Yair, 1982; Howard, 2009). The main aims of this research are: i) to estimate rates of sheet erosion based on dendrogeomorphology with exposed roots and the USLE to compare the results obtained with both methods; ii) to reconstruct the evolution of a small gully from the year of root exposure and to estimate channel widening rates; and iii) to evaluate the soil properties that affect erosion at the study site.
2. Study area
The study area is located 5.8 km southeast of the municipal capital of Huasca de Ocampo, Hidalgo, in the northern piedmont of the Sierras de la Navajas, an early Pleistocene rhyolitic stratovolcano that is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB). Associated with the activity of the Sierra de las Navajas, mafic cinder cones and lava flows were emplaced around the stratovolcano (Lighthart, 2001; Martínez-Serrano et al., 2022). The study site is located southeast of one of these cones, called Cerro Verde (~2 260 m.a.s.l.; Figure 1), at 2 270 m above sea level.
The piedmont of the Sierra de las Navajas is formed by Lixisols (as defined by the IUSS Working Group WRB, 2022) of approximately two meters thick that show accelerated erosion processes, to the point of forming badlands (Figure 2). Dating with 14C suggests that erosion began before 2 400 B.P., so it could have been induced by human activity in pre-Hispanic times (Vázquez-Selem and Zinck, 1994a).
The climate in the area is temperate sub-humid with summer rains. Based on data from the nearby El Zembo climatological station, the average annual temperature is 13.5°C and annual precipitation is 902 mm, of which 85% falls from May to November (SMN, 2023). The original vegetation in the area is a mixed forest composed of Juniperus deppeana, Quercus spp. and Pinus spp., while eucalyptus and pine trees have been planted in recent years to stop erosion.
Previous research in the Huasca badlands has focused on understanding gully development and determining the conditions and factors predominant in their advance (Vázquez-Selem and Zinck, 1994b; Hernández-Sánchez et al., 2019;), as well as analyzing the mechanisms driving the erosion and sedimentation (Muñoz-Salinas et al., 2023). Likewise, studies have been carried out to quantify sheet soil erosion using sediment collectors (Palacio-Prieto and Vázquez-Selem, 1990), as well as dendrogeomorphology with exposed roots and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs; Franco-Ramos et al., 2023).
3. Materials and methods
The analysis of sheet erosion based on dendrogeomorphology with exposed roots and the USLE was carried out at the footslope of a cinder cone along a 17 m long hillslope. In the same landform position, a gully was reconstructed from the year of exposure of tree roots. The gully side slope where soil properties were described and analyzed is located a few meters away from these sites (Figure 3).
3.1. SOIL DESCRIPTION
The soil analysis was conducted on a profile representative of the area’s soil conditions, following the criteria established by Siebe et al. (2016). These criteria include: the description of landform attributes around the profile; the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil; and the properties influencing erosion, such as organic matter content, texture, aggregate stability, and hydraulic conductivity.
3.2. DENDROGEOMORPHOLOGY WITH EXPOSED ROOTS
Sampling consisted of collecting samples of exposed roots with the aid of a hand saw (Figure 4A). Each root was identified with a key (HIR1, HIR2), and the cross sections taken from each root were alphabetically lettered (HIR1A, HIR1B; Figure 4B). In addition, study site data such as geographic coordinates and altitude were recorded. In the case of sheet erosion, the slope of the terrain and the orientation of the roots in relation to the direction of runoff were collected. Additionally, the thickness of the eroded soil was measured using a microtopographic profile gauge (Bodoque et al., 2005; Figure 4C). Samples for gully erosion analysis were measured regarding the edge and bottom of the gully (Figure 4D). In total, 44 cross sections were collected from 18 roots of two Juniperus deppeana trees (Table 1).
In the laboratory, the samples were first polished with sandpaper of different thicknesses to identify the root growth rings. Subsequently, they were pre-dated by assigning a year of formation to each ring from the outermost ring to the pith. The rings were then measured using a VELMEX measuring micrometer with an accuracy of 1/1 000 mm (Robinson and Evans, 1980), connected to a computer and the TSAPWin software (Rinn, 2003). Each cross section was measured in two radii looking for the axes with the highest eccentricity to differentiate the year of root exposure. TSAPWin software allows the visualization of all the measured series as a whole, so it was also useful to corroborate the dating of the roots.
At the microscopic level, two samples (R3A and R5A) were analyzed. First, histological sections 20-25 μm thick were made using a Leica 2000R sliding microtome. The sections were stained with safranin to visualize lignified tracheids and mounted on slides with synthetic resin (Canada balsam) according to Ŝilhán (2018). Then, high-resolution photographs of the slices were captured using an Axio ZoomV16 stereo microscope attached to a Zeiss AxioCam MRc5 and an Olympus BX51 from Olympus Inc. attached to an Infinity I digital camera. These images were used to measure the lumen area of the cells in WinCell Pro 2013 software to identify the year of root exposure.
Annual rates of sheet erosion (Era) were obtained by dividing the thickness of soil lost (Er) by the number of rings since the year of exposure (NRex).
The thickness of soil lost (Er) is derived from the height of the exposed part of the root measured in the field (Ex), which is adjusted from some parameters proposed by Corona et al. (2011). They point out that roots present anatomical changes even before the edaphic cover is completely removed, so that a bias (ε) must be considered in order not to underestimate erosion rates. In this work we used the value (3.1 cm) reported by Franco-Ramos et al. (2023) from buried roots of Juniperus deppeana in the same area of Huasca. The equation to obtain Er is as follows:
Where:
Er: Erosion rate
Ex: Height of the exposed part of the root measured in the field.
Gr1: Subsequent growth of the upper/lower side of the root after exposure.
B1, B2: Thickness of the bark on the upper/lower side of the root.
ε: Estimated bias or error.
In the gully, to estimate channel widening rates, the criteria proposed by Ballesteros-Cánovas et al. (2017) and Franco-Ramos et al. (2023) were followed. These consist of dividing the relative distance between two adjacent samples in millimeters and the time elapsed in years since the exposure of one sample and another.
3.3. ESTIMATION OF SOIL EROSION WITH THE USLE
The USLE was estimated from the following equation proposed by Wischmeier and Smith (1978).
Where:
A: potential annual erosion (ton/ha/year)
R: rainfall erosivity LS: length-slope factor
LS: length-slope factorK: soil erodibility
C: cultivation/vegetation
P: conservation practices
The R factor was calculated with precipitation data from the climatological station El Zembo in three representative years. The wettest year (2012), the driest year (1982) and a year (2009) with precipitation close to the mean of that station were chosen. This factor was obtained from the Modified Fournier Index (MFI; Arnoldus, 1978) which is calculated with the following equation:
Where:
MFI: Modified Fournier Index
Pi: Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Pt: Total annual precipitation (mm).
Regarding the LS factor, the slope of the terrain was 19.4% and the length of the interfluve was 17 meters. Three equations were used to calculate this factor to evaluate which one offers the best results for the study site. These include the original proposal developed by Wischmeier and Smith (1978), the equation used in RUSLE (Renard et al., 1997), and a more recent proposal by Stone and Hilborn (2012).
The erodibility (K factor) was calculated from the properties of the surface soil horizon in the interfluve. The value was determined using the nomogram developed by Wischmeier et al. (1971) and modified by Siebe et al. (2016). It should be said that the same result was obtained following the table suggested by Stone and Smith (2012) based on texture and organic matter content.
For the C factor, two scenarios were established. The first, under current land use conditions in which the value of “sparse vegetation cover” was applied in 40% of the surface (Wischmeier and Smith,1978). The second scenario was “reforestation of eroded areas” (Prado-Hernández et al., 2017).
Once soil erosion was calculated with the USLE, the values of mass per surface area (ton/ ha/year) were converted to linear thickness (mm/ year). To accomplish this, the value obtained with the USLE was divided by the soil bulk density to calculate the volume. Then, the resulting value was divided by the area (10 000 m2) to obtain the thickness. Finally, the units were converted from meters to millimeters.
4. Results
4.1. SOIL PROPERTIES AFFECTING EROSION
The described profile provided insight into the general soil properties in this badlands area, which is characterized by a highly developed soil about two meters thick. In this zone, sheet erosion has removed the A horizon, so the profile is truncated and starts from the exhumed B horizon (Figure 5). The soil has reddish colorations and clayey textures due to the prolonged exposure of the parent material (mid-Pleistocene basaltic tephra) to weathering. Related to the above, the faces of the aggregates show thick, continuous cutans, evidence of clay illuviation. Throughout the profile there are black spots of manganese oxides, which can be associated with seasonally poor drainage. Based on its properties, the soil was classified using the ISS Working Group WRB (2022) as: Nudiargic Ferric Hypo-stagnic Lixisol (Clayic, Cutanic, Hypereutric). The properties of each horizon are shown in Table 2.
Regarding soil susceptibility to erosion, some properties that promote this process were identified. Firstly, although the soil has a high-water retention capacity or field capacity, its high clay content (~50 %) causes the hydraulic conductivity to be deficient, which limits water infiltration and promotes runoff, leading to erosion of the surface horizon of the soil. Secondly, the soil has limitations for the natural establishment of vegetation, such as low water availability, nutrient availability and aeration capacity. In addition, phosphorus and nitrogen are practically non-existent, since they depend on the amount of organic matter present in the soil and the A horizon is missing.
In the interfluve where the exposed roots are located, a sample of the surface soil horizon was also collected to estimate erodibility (K factor). At this site, the moist soil color is 2.5YR 4/4, the pH is 6, the textural class is clay loam, the structure is subangular blocky, and the aggregate stability is moderate. The bulk density is 1.3 g/cm3, and the hydraulic conductivity in saturation conditions is 10-40 cm/day. The k factor is 0.63.
4.2. ESTIMATION OF SHEET AND GULLY EROSION USING EXPOSED ROOTS
In general, the roots of Juniperus deppena analyzed are very young, the last ring formed corresponds to 2019 and has an average age of 16 years. Disturbances associated with root exposure at the macroscopic level were compression wood (100 %), eccentric growth (81 %) and latewood increment (58 %). The two samples (R3A and R5A) that were analyzed at the microscopic level showed a reduction in cell lumen area of 55 % and 65 %, respectively. It should be noted that there are differences associated with the intensity of the disturbances between roots exposed by sheet erosion and gully erosion, especially in eccentric growth. Roots exposed by sheet erosion show a more marked eccentricity, probably due to the lower soil removal rate in this type of erosion, which leaves the roots subject to changing environmental conditions for a longer period.
The sheet erosion rates obtained vary between 5.1 and 14.4 mm/year (Table 3). In 66 % of the samples, erosion rates ranged between 5.1 and 7.7 mm/year, so it can be considered that erosion in this interfluve is homogeneous. Roots R13 and R14 presented the highest erosion rates, almost double compared to the other roots. This can be attributed to their proximity to the headcut of a gully, where the water flow is concentrated towards the gully headcut, increasing its erosive power (Figure 6).
Regarding gully erosion, a small gully was reconstructed from 10 exposed roots that crossed it, covering a period of 14 years, from 2006 to 2020. The oldest year was determined by sample R3A, located in the most distal zone of the gully regarding the headcut, while the most recent corresponds to the gully headcut at the time of sampling (February 2020). However, it is very likely that the last event that modeled this landform occurred during the rainy season of the previous year.
Disturbances in the root growth rings allowed the identification of 11 erosional events. Three of them (2015, 2016 and 2018) were recorded in more than four cross sections distributed in various sectors of the gully. Other years in which roots were also exposed were 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2017 (Figure 7A).
The reconstruction focused on the channel widening of the gully and the retreat of the headcut (Figure 7B). Erosion is more active at the headcut than at the edges of the gully. As the headcut recedes, erosional activity decreases in the lower sector. In 2015 and 2016, the boundary towards the headcut receded significantly compared to previous years. Field observations suggest that these samples were initially exposed by sheet erosion or by a shallow stream before being fully integrated into the gully by the retreating main headcut.
The channel widening rates of the gully obtained with some cross sections vary between 29 and 330 mm/year (see Table in Figure 8). It is very likely that the high values derive not only from water erosion but also from the detachment of the material by a gravitational process, since in some areas of the gully sapping destabilizes the slopes.
4.3. ESTIMATION OF SOIL LOSS WITH THE USLE
Based on the five factors required by the USLE (Table 4), potential soil erosion was calculated. The erosion rates obtained show variations depending on the years used to calculate the R factor and the equations used to estimate the LS factor.
Under the “sparse vegetation cover” scenario, in 2012, the wettest year recorded by the El Zembo climatological station, the highest soil loss rates occurred, ranging from 7.7 to 20.0 mm/year. In contrast, erosion rates in the driest year, 1982, ranged between 1.9 and 5.0 mm/year. These data could represent erosion under extreme climatic conditions, which is rare. Therefore, the 2009 precipitation was also considered, since it is close to the annual average for that station. In that year, erosion rates ranged from 3.9 to 10.2 mm/year (Table 5).
Based on the proposals for calculating the LS factor, the highest values were obtained with the original equation of Wischmeier and Smith (1978) with an average of 11.7 mm/year for the three years. Considering the equation of Renard et al. (1997) the average rates were 6.5 mm/year and with the proposal of Stone and Hilborn (2012) the lowest rates were obtained with an average of 4.5 mm/year.
Under the reforestation scenario of the study site, the erosion rates obtained decreased considerably. In the wettest year, the values varied between 3.4 and 8.7 mm/year, while in the driest year they ranged between 0.8 and 2.2 mm/year. Based on the authors’ proposals for calculating the LS factor (Table 6), average values ranging between 2.0 and 5.1 mm/year were obtained.
5. Discussion
5.1. SHEET AND GULLY EROSION WITH EXPOSED ROOTS
Sheet erosion rates obtained with exposed roots have been successfully validated with other methods. In Spain, they were compared with the results of a direct method, finding agreement between the rates of both methods (Bodoque et al., 2015). In the same area of Huasca de Ocampo, erosion rates obtained based on exposed roots and photogrammetry with UAV were compared, finding similar results (Franco-Ramos et al., 2022). This positions dendrogeomorphology with exposed roots as a reliable method for calculating sheet erosion rates. In this study, sheet erosion rates derived from exposed roots (5.1 to 14.4 mm/yr) are slightly higher than those reported in European badlands using the same methodology. For example, López-Saez et al. (2011) reported rates ranging from 1.8 to 5.2 mm/yr in the southern Alps. Similarly, Bodoque et al. (2011) documented erosion rates between 2.1 and 18.7 mm/yr in gullies near the foot of the Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain, despite the presence of steeper slopes (7°–36°). In the latter case, the influence of environmental factors such as soil type or climatic conditions could be involved. Similarly, erosion rates recorded by Chartier et al. (2009) in the rangelands of northeastern Patagonia, where soil erosion is considered the main degradation process, were also lower (2.4 to 3.1 mm/yr) than those reported in Huasca in this study.
The analysis of disturbances in exposed roots also allowed reconstructing 14 years of the development of a small gully. Previous research has also studied this process over decades (Malik, 2008; Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2017; Šilhán, 2018), which has helped to understand the erosional dynamics in gullies without the need for constant monitoring. The lateral widening rates obtained in this study (29-330 mm/yr) are similar to those reported in a Mediterranean environment in central Spain (120 +/- 120 mm/yr) (Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2017) and in pyroclastic deposits from the Paricutín volcano, Michoacán, Mexico (60 and 200 mm/yr) (Franco-Ramos et al., 2022). Although the substrate in these sites is different, they present a high erodibility, so erosion is a dominant process.
5.2. EROSION RATES BASED ON THE USLE
The USLE has been widely used around the world; however, some studies indicate that it may overestimate erosion, especially in large areas with complex topography (Becker et al., 2002; Romero-Díaz et al., 2011). Therefore, the precise and adequate calculation of the factors that make up this model is decisive in the result.
In this study, the factors were estimated by testing the most suitable equations, according to the available data. For example, the R factor was calculated with an equation (MFI) widely recommended and used in sites with only daily and monthly precipitation records. In a previous study in Parana, Argentina, that equation was compared with the original USLE equation showing a high correlation (Crettaz et al., 2016). Likewise, in northeastern Mexico, the accuracy of the MFI was demonstrated in medium and steep slopes with no gullies (Pando-Moreno et al., 2003). The results obtained in this research suggest that in the study area with average annual precipitation of 902 mm, the MFI is also appropriate for estimating the R factor of the USLE.
Erosion rates under the second USLE scenario (reforestation) decreased considerably compared to the first one (sparse vegetation cover), suggesting that reforestation is a good strategy for slowing erosion. However, it is important that the measures implemented consider the physical and chemical soil characteristics of the study site, such as clayey soil texture, low aeration and water availability, as well as the absence of important nutrients for plants. The relief conditions and drainage connectivity of the area must also be considered (Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2017).
5.3. COMPARISON OF SHEET EROSION RATES OBTAINED WITH DENDROGEOMORPHOLOGY AND THE USLE
The two methods used in this research to estimate sheet erosion rates (dendrogeomorphology with exposed roots and USLE) yield similar results. Erosion rates obtained with the USLE under current land use conditions, “sparse vegetation cover” range from 4.5 to 11.7 mm/year while the results estimated with exposed roots range from 5.1 to 16.5 mm/year. The erosion rates obtained with the dendrogeomorphological method coincide better with the result obtained from the equation of Renard et al. (1997) (6.5 mm/year) to calculate the LS factor. So it seems to be the most appropriate for estimating soil loss in this area.
In a previous work, under Mediterranean conditions in central Spain, the same methods used in this research were applied. Values 2 or 3 times lower were obtained with the USLE, so it was concluded that the USLE underestimates soil loss in these environments (Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2007). In contrast, the results obtained in Huasca suggest that the USLE and exposed roots can be used in a complementary manner under conditions similar to those of the study area, since they offer similar results.
6. Conclusions
The combination of methods provided a more complete understanding of erosional dynamics in and around the badlands. Dendrogeomorphology based on exposed roots allows for the accurate assessment of erosion rates and the reconstruction of landscape evolution over periods ranging from years to decades, without the need for constant monitoring. The USLE is a model that requires little data to estimate erosion rates, which facilitates its application in various areas. In addition, this model allows simulating soil loss under different land use coverages, which helps to evaluate the optimal option according to the specific requirements of each site. It is important to note that the methods used have some limitations. In the case of dendrogeomorphology, the main one is the need for roots exposed by erosion and trees suitable for dendrochronology. Although the USLE can be used basically at any site, it is crucial to properly adjust the values of the factors to avoid underestimating or overestimating erosion rates. This research provides valuable insights for developing effective environmental management and conservation strategies in other tropical highland areas, based on easy-to-implement, low-cost methods.
Contributions of authors
(1) Conceptualization: MVR, OFR, JABC, LVS; (2) Data analysis or acquisition: MVR, OFR, LVS, JABC; (3) Methodological/technical development: OFR, JABC, LVS; (4) Drafting of original manuscript: MVR, OFR; (5) Drafting of corrected and edited manuscript: MVR, OFR, LVS, JABC; (6) Graphic design: MVR; (7) Fieldwork: JABC, OFR, LVS, MVR; (8) Interpretation: MVR, OFR, LVS.
Financing
This research was funded by DGAPA-PAPIIT, UNAM project number IN100522.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this article.
Handling editor
Laura P. Perucca.
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